Physiology 2

Data

Official data in SubjectManager for the following academic year: 2021-2022

Topic

The most important mission of the Physiology Course in medical education is to familiarize students with the attributes of healthy functions of the living organism.
While acquiring knowledge about the most important functional characteristics of the human body the students can rely on their prior studies in biology, biophysics, chemistry-biochemistry and anatomy.
During the semester we introduce the most important elements of functioning of the organs and organ systems, as well as their cooperation also required to adapting to the environment, and the factors affecting these processes.
Special emphasis is placed on the neural and humoral regulatory processes of these life-functions, which are vital to maintain and preserve the homeostasis of the organism.
With the transfer of all this knowledge we would like to mould a holistic attitude and thinking of students, which will enable them to better understand the functions of the now healthy, however, later dysfunctional human organism.

Lectures

• 1. Introduction. The hypothalamo-hypophysial system. - Dr. Ábrahám István Miklós
• 2. The neurohypophysis. - Dr. Zelena Dóra Tímea
• 3. Growth hormone and prolactin. - Dr. Ábrahám István Miklós
• 4. Synthesis and degradation of steroid hormones. The functions of the adrenal gland cortex. - Dr. Zelena Dóra Tímea
• 5. Effect of glucocorticoids. - Dr. Zelena Dóra Tímea
• 6. Physiological mechanisms of the adrenal gland and stress. - Dr. Zelena Dóra Tímea
• 7. Hormonal regulation of female sexual functions. - Dr. Koppán Miklós Endre
• 8. Pregnancy. - Dr. Koppán Miklós Endre
• 9. Childbirth and breastfeeding. - Dr. Koppán Miklós Endre
• 10. Hormonal regulation of male sexual functions. Erection, ejaculation coitus. - Dr. Ábrahám István Miklós
• 11. Humoral and central neural control of sexual behaviour. - Dr. Hernádi István
• 12. Puberty. Climacteric. - Dr. Ábrahám István Miklós
• 13. Thyroid physiology I. - Dr. Környei József László
• 14. Thyroid physiology II. - Dr. Környei József László
• 15. Hormonal control of calcium homeostasis. - Dr. Környei József László
• 16. Internal secretory function of the pancreas. - Dr. Zelena Dóra Tímea
• 17. Hormonal regulation of food intake and metabolism. - Dr. Zelena Dóra Tímea
• 18. Function of the adipose tissue. The basics of weight management. - Dr. Molnár Gergő Attila
• 19. Diabetes and obesity. - Dr. Molnár Gergő Attila
• 20. Physiology of ontogenesis and ageing. - Dr. Környei József László
• 21. Introduction to the physiology of the nervous system, general concepts. - Dr. Buzás Péter
• 22. Spinal cord functions I. - Dr. Kóbor Péter
• 23. Spinal cord functions II. - Dr. Kóbor Péter
• 24. The spinal shock. - Péliné Dr. Kovács Anita
• 25. Decerebrate rigidity. - Péliné Dr. Kovács Anita
• 26. Postural coordination. Positioning and holding reflexes. - Dr. Kertes Erika
• 27. Locomotion. - Dr. Kertes Erika
• 28. Extrapyramidal system I. - Dr. Péczely László Zoltán
• 29. Extrapyramidal system II. - Dr. Péczely László Zoltán
• 30. Physiology of the vestibular system. - Dr. Péczely László Zoltán
• 31. The function of the cerebellum I. - Dr. Péczely László Zoltán
• 32. The function of the cerebellum II. - Dr. Péczely László Zoltán
• 33. Cortical control of motor functions. The pyramidal system. - Dr. Lénárd László Csaba
• 34. Somaesthetic mechanisms. Somatotopic representations in the sensory systems. - Dr. Lénárd László Csaba
• 35. Thalamocortical somatosensory functions. The sensory cortex. - Dr. Lénárd László Csaba
• 36. Pain mechanism. Opiate mechanisms. - Dr. Lénárd László Csaba
• 37. Optics of vision. Refractory errors of the eye. - Dr. Jandó Gábor
• 38. Retinal mechanisms. - Dr. Jandó Gábor
• 39. Visual pathways, midbrain mechanisms of the visual system. - Dr. Jandó Gábor
• 40. Central mechanism of vision. - Dr. Jandó Gábor
• 41. Eye movements and their control. - Dr. Jandó Gábor
• 42. Physiology of hearing I. - Dr. Pytel József
• 43. Physiology of hearing II. - Dr. Pytel József
• 44. Central auditory mechanisms. - Dr. Buzásné Dr. Telkes Ildikó
• 45. The chemical senses I. Olfaction. - Dr. Szabó István
• 46. The chemical senses II. Taste. - Dr. Szabó István
• 47. Electroencephalography. - Dr. Hernádi István
• 48. The evoked potential technique and its clinical importance. - Dr. Ráczné Dr. Mikó-Baráth Eszter
• 49. Neural control of sleep I. - Dr. Hernádi István
• 50. Neural control of sleep II. - Dr. Hernádi István
• 51. Regulation of biological rhytms. - Dr. Varga Csaba
• 52. Interesting clinical topics: sleep tests, sleep disorders. - Dr. Faludi Béla
• 53. Control of the vegetative functions: the brainstem. - Dr. László Kristóf
• 54. The diencephalon (hypothalamus). Its motor, autonomic and hormonal regulatory functions. - Dr. László Kristóf
• 55. Central neural regulation of hunger and thirst. - Dr. Lénárd László Csaba
• 56. The concept of drive and motivation. Homeostatic drives. - Dr. Lénárd László Csaba
• 57. Structures and connections of the limbic system. - Dr. Lénárd László Csaba
• 58. The role of the limbic system in the regulation of motivation. - Dr. Lénárd László Csaba
• 59. Emotions and their central nervous mechanism. - Dr. Kertes Erika
• 60. Monoamine systems in the central nervous system. - Dr. Lénárd László Csaba
• 61. Importance of monoamine systems in physiological and pathological processes. - Dr. Lénárd László Csaba
• 62. Basics of learning mechanisms in the central nervous system. - Dr. László Kristóf
• 63. Basics of memory formation in the central nervous system. - Dr. László Kristóf
• 64. Cellular mechanisms of learning and memory. - Dr. Varga Csaba
• 65. Interesting clinical topics: neuropathology of memory disorders. - Dr. Seress László Antal
• 66. Plasticity during life: neuroscience of developmental neurology and geriatrics. - Dr. Lénárd László Csaba
• 67. Functions of the frontal lobe. - Dr. Lénárd László Csaba
• 68. The parieto-temporal lobe. - Dr. Lénárd László Csaba
• 69. Cerebral hemisphere dominance. - Dr. Lénárd László Csaba
• 70. Neurophysiological mechanisms of speech. Speech disorders. - Dr. Lénárd László Csaba

Practices

• 1. Examination of the renal functions: urinanalysis.
• 2. Examination of the renal functions: urinanalysis.
• 3. Seminar: Calculation of renal clearance.
• 4. Seminar: Measurement methods of the GFR.
• 5. Measurement of the oxygen consumption in the rat.
• 6. Measurement of the oxygen consumption in the rat.
• 7. Measurement of the actual metabolic rate in human.
• 8. Measurement of the actual metabolic rate in human.
• 9. Endocrinology: examination of carbohydrate metabolism.
• 10. Endocrinology: examination of carbohydrate metabolism.
• 11. Endocrinology: examination of carbohydrate metabolism.
• 12. Endocrinology: examination of carbohydrate metabolism.
• 13. Endocrinology: reproduction, tests of pregnancy.
• 14. Endocrinology: reproduction, tests of pregnancy.
• 15. Endocrinology: reproduction, tests of pregnancy.
• 16. Endocrinology: reproduction, tests of pregnancy.
• 17. Seminar: basic neural functions.
• 18. Seminar: basic neural functions.
• 19. Examination of basic neural functions using computer simulation.
• 20. Examination of neural basic neural functions using computer simulation.
• 21. Examination of peripheral nervous system on nerve preparation.
• 22. Examination of peripheral nervous system on nerve preparation.
• 23. Examination of peripheral nervous system on nerve preparation.
• 24. Examination of peripheral nervous system on nerve preparation.
• 25. Examination of human peripheral nervous system: treshold potential, chronaxie, rheobase,
• 26. Examination of human peripheral nervous system: treshold potential, chronaxie, rheobase,
• 27. Examination of human peripheral nervous system: nerve conduction velocity.
• 28. Examination of human peripheral nervous system: nerve conduction velocity.
• 29. Examination of reflexes in human.
• 30. Examination of reflexes in human.
• 31. Examination of somatosensoric system.
• 32. Measurement of reaction time and action time in human.
• 33. Method of stereotaxic surgery
• 34. Method of stereotaxic surgery
• 35. Method of stereotaxic surgery
• 36. Method of stereotaxic surgery
• 37. Examinations of special senses: vision
• 38. Examinations of special senses: vision
• 39. Examinations of special senses: vision
• 40. Examinations of special senses: vision
• 41. Examinations of special senses: vision
• 42. Examinations of special senses: vision
• 43. Examinations of special senses: vision
• 44. Examinations of special senses: vision
• 45. Examinations of special senses: taste and smell
• 46. Examinations of special senses: taste and smell
• 47. Examinations of special senses: hearing and equilibrium
• 48. Examinations of special senses: hearing and equilibrium
• 49. Electroencephalography in humans
• 50. Electroencephalography in humans
• 51. Electroencephalography in humans
• 52. Electroencephalography in humans
• 53. Discussion of the laboratory practicies.
• 54. Discussion of the laboratory practices.
• 55. Discussion of the laboratory practices and oral report.
• 56. Discussion of the laboratory practices and oral report.

Seminars

Reading material

Obligatory literature

Guyton & Hall: Textbook of Medical Physiology (Elsevier), 13th ed., 2015.

Literature developed by the Department

Figures of the lectures given are available on the homepage of Institute of Physiology and on the Neptun Meet Street.
Important messages on new information will be announced at the lectures and will be sent to you by course mails.
Please always find the current updated information and study materials on the homepage of the Institute of Physiology (physiology.aok.pte.hu).

Notes

Homepage of PTE ÁOK Institute of Physiology: Physiology Lab Practices 2, internet study material, printable notebook, 2019
Homepage of PTE ÁOK Institute of Physiology: Physiology Lab Practice Worksheets 2, internet study material, printable notebook, 2019

Recommended literature

Eric R. Kandel, James H. Schwartz, Thomas M. Jessel: Principles of Neural Sciences, 5th ed. 2000
Linda S. Costanzo: Physiology 5th ed., 2013;
Walter F. Boron, Emile L. Boulpaep: Medical Physiology 2nd ed. 2012

Conditions for acceptance of the semester

Maximum of 15 % absence allowed

Mid-term exams

Written test on the 11th week Friday at 16:00.

Making up for missed classes

The missed lab practice is advised to be covered by joining another group while the same topic is on schedule.

Exam topics/questions

Topics of questions for the theoretical examination:

1. Describe the body fluid compartments and explain the methods used for measurement of body fluid volumes
2. Describe the major plasma proteins and the other non-electrolytic constituents of blood and explain their function in the body
3. Describe the intra- and extracellular ionic components and explain their physiological functions
4. The structure, function and origin of erythrocytes
5. Characterize the various leukocytes indicating their origins and functions
6. Origin and function of blood platelets
7. The basic structure and metabolism of haemoglobin and the metabolism of iron
8. Describe the two pathways involved in the initiation of blood coagulation
9. Specific mechanism of clot formation
10. Describe the mechanism of fibrinolysis. Explain the significance of anticlotting mechanism
11. Regulation of H+ ion concentration in the blood
12. A-B-0 blood groups. The Rh blood types
13. The role of leukocytes in the defence mechanism
14. Mechanical activity of the heart and the three-component model of heart muscle. Calcium ion movements within the cardiac muscle cell
15. Generators and conductors of impulses in the heart. Refractory periods
16. The sequence of events in the cardiac cycle
17. The human electrocardiogram (ECG). Electrocardiography: bipolar and unipolar leads
18. The heart sounds. Phonocardiography (PCG)
19. Cardiac output: measurement, normal standards and physiological variations
20. Metabolism and energetics of cardiac muscle
21. Ventricular wall tension and the Laplace relationship
22. The heart-lung preparation (Starling’s laws)
23. Arterial blood pressure: determinants of normal arterial blood pressure
24. The arterial and the venous pulse. Basic principles of hemodynamics.
25. Circulation through the capillaries
26. The properties, production and the movement of lymph
27. Circulation in the vein. Effect of gravity on circulation
28. The pulmonary circulation. Control of lung vessels
29. The coronary circulation
30. Cerebral circulation. The concept of blood-brain barrier
31. Splanchnic circulation
32. Skeletal muscle circulation. Cutaneous circulation
33. Nervous control of the heart
34. Control mechanisms of the circulatory system: general considerations
35. Local control of the vascular smooth muscle
36. Autoregulation of blood flow in tissues and organs
37. The function and importance of baroreceptors in the regulation of circulation
38. Reflex control mechanisms of circulation
39. Mechanisms of vasoconstriction and vasodilatation
40. Mechanics of respiration (functions of respiratory muscles, compliance, intrathoracic pressures, respiratory volumes)
41. Alveolar air, alveolar ventilation, dead spaces. Function of the respiratory passageways
42. Gaseous exchange in the lungs and tissues
43. O2 and CO2 transport in the body
44. Peripheral and central regulatory mechanisms of respiration. Respiratory reflexes
45. Chemical control of respiration. Acidosis, alkalosis
46. Different types of hypoxia. Oxygen treatment. Mechanisms of acclimatisation. Nitrogen narcosis. Decompression sickness
47. Describe the origin, composition, function and control of salivary secretion
48. Describe the origin, nature and function of gastric secretion indicating the mechanisms of regulation
49. Mechanism and regulation of gastrointestinal movements
50. Identify the pancreatic secretions, their components, their action and the substrates on which they act. Control mechanism of pancreatic secretion
51. Describe the basic ingredients and functions of the bile indicating the origin and fate of the components and the factors controlling bile secretions and gall bladder functions
52. Identify the components and functions of the intestinal system
53. Describe how carbohydrate is digested and absorbed indicating the enzymes involved
54. Describe how fat is digested and absorbed indicating the enzymes and secretions involved
55. Describe how protein is digested and absorbed indicating the enzymes and secretions involved
56. Dynamics of glomerular filtration. Glomerular filtration rate. Plasma clearance
57. Renal blood flow. Clearance of PAH. Extraction ratio. Filtration fraction
58. Regulation of renal blood flow and pressure. Renin-angiotensin system
59. Reabsorption and secretion of different substances in the renal tubule. Methods for their investigation
60. Concentrating and diluting mechanisms of the kidney
61. Fluid volume regulation of the body
62. Regulation of concentrations of ions in the extracellular fluid. Regulation of osmolality of body fluids
63. Basal metabolic rate. Describe factors influencing the basal metabolism
64. Define metabolic rate explaining those factors influencing the total expenditure of energy by the body
65. Describe the necessary elements of normal diet
66. The normal body temperature and its physiological variations. Hyperthermia, fever, hypothermia
67. Chemical regulation of body temperature, changes of regulation at low and high environmental temperature
68. Physical regulation of body temperature, changes of regulation at low and high environmental temperature
69. Central regulatory mechanisms of heat production and heat loss
70. Mechanisms of hormone action (receptors, intracellular mediators, cAMP, Ca2+ and diacylglycerol, protein kinases)
71. Mechanism of hormonal regulation. Negative and positive feedback controls in the endocrine system
72. The anterior pituitary hormones. Regulation of pituitary hormone secretions. Pituitary dysfunction
73. Function of growth hormone during development and after adolescence
74. Abnormalities of thyroid secretion. Goitrogens
75. Function of the thyroid gland. Iodine metabolism in the body
76. Hormonal changes during menstrual cycle
77. Hormonal changes during pregnancy. Role of placenta in pregnancy. Foeto-placental unit
78. Hormones of lactation
79. Mechanism of erection and ejaculation. The sexual act (coitus)
80. The function of testis, epididymis, seminal vesicle and prostate
81. Regulation of the sexual behaviour. Maternal behaviour
82. Physiological changes at puberty and climacteric
83. Vasopressin and oxytocin. Function of ANH (atrionatriuretic hormone)
84. The effects of prostaglandins
85. The endocrine pancreas
86. Function of insulin in the body. Diabetes mellitus
87. Hormonal control of carbohydrate metabolism
88. Hormonal control of calcium and phosphor homeostasis
89. Hormonal function of the adrenocortical system. Hypophyseal regulation of the adrenocortical system. Stress and the adaptation syndrome
90. Function and regulation of mineralocorticoids
91. Function and regulation of glucocorticoids
92. Consequences of hypo- and hyperfunction of the adrenal cortex. Androgens and oestrogens of the adrenal cortex.
93. Hormones of the adrenal medulla. Importance of the sympathoadrenal system
94. Physiology of ontogenesis and ageing.
95. Molecular mechanism of muscle contraction. The regulatory role of calcium ion
96. Mechanical characteristics of muscle. Differentiation of fast and slow twitch muscle fibres. Role of the connective tissue in the function of muscles
97. Mechanism of fatigue
98. Electromyography (EMG)
99. The source of energy for muscle contraction (aerobe and anaerobe processes). Heat production during contraction-relaxation cycle
100. The neuromuscular junction
101. Structural and functional differences between skeletal and smooth muscles. Mechanism of smooth muscle contraction
102. Membrane potential and action potential: explain their ionic mechanisms. Membrane properties of CNS neurons
103. The compound action potential. Conductive properties of various nerve fibres
104. Neurochemistry of synapses, neurotransmitters, postsynaptic receptors and neuromodulators. EPSP, IPSP
105. The myotatic (stretch) reflex. Gamma motoneurons
106. The motor units. Central control of muscle contractions
107. Types of mechanoreceptors and their role in motor control
108. How do cutaneous mechanoreceptors help to explore, learn and know our environment?
109. Somatosensory mechanisms of spinal cord and brain stem
110. Pain mechanisms, central and peripheral components
111. Descendent control (gating) of nociception and of pain reactions
112. Organisation of primary somatosensory cortex, thalamocortical projection and somatotopy
113. The human electroencephalogram (EEG). Evoked potential (EP) technique
114. Neural mechanisms of sleep and correlated somatic, autonomic and bioelectrical phenomena. The role of reticular formation in the sleep-wakefulness cycle
115. The diencephalon (hypothalamus), its motor, autonomic and hormonal regulatory function
116. Hunger and thirst. Central regulatory processes of food and water intake
117. Central mechanisms of locomotion
118. Decerebration rigidity and spinal shock (symptoms and mechanisms)
119. Postural and righting reflexes, their central mechanisms and localisation within the spinal cord, brain stem and neocortex
120. Structure and function of the extrapyramidal system
121. Symptoms after damages of different extrapyramidal structures. Role of neurotransmitters in the extrapyramidal functions
122. Importance of the cerebellum in co-ordination of movements
123. Cerebellar cortical mechanisms
124. Structure and function of the vestibular system
125. Functions of the autonomic nervous system. Autonomic reflexes
126. Humoral mediators in the autonomic nervous system. Adrenergic, cholinergic and opioid receptors
127. Structures, connections and functions of the limbic system
128. Functions of the motor cortex. Symptoms following its damage
129. Corticospinal (pyramidal) system. Consequences of lesions of the pyramidal pathways and the peripheral motoneuron
130. The concept of drive and motivation. Their integrated neural mechanisms. Reticular activating system
131. Emotions and their central nervous mechanisms
132. The phenomena of operant (instrumental) and classical (Pavlovian) conditioning. Mechanism of reinforcement
133. Electrical and chemical self-stimulation. Rewarding (positive) and punishing (negative) reinforcement. Simple learning processes. Exceptional forms of conditioning
134. Types and disorders of memory functions
135. Cerebral dominance. Lateralisation of functions in the hemispheres. Split-brain examinations
136. Functions of the parietal and temporal association (intrinsic) areas of the neocortex. Symptoms after damages (apraxia, agnosia)
137. Neurophysiological mechanisms of speech. Speech disorders
138. Functions of the frontal lobe (prefrontal intrinsic area)
139. Functions of the temporal lobe (Kluver-Bucy syndrome)
140. Central monoaminergic systems and their functional significance
141. Peripheral auditory mechanisms (conductive apparatus and cochlea)
142. Central auditory pathways, acoustic cortex and related mechanisms
143. Physiological optics
144. The retina. Photoreceptors and neuronal functions in the retina
145. Central visual pathways, the visual cortex and their functions
146. Colour vision. Stereoscopic vision
147. Peripheral and central mechanisms of olfaction
148. Peripheral and central mechanisms of sensation of taste
149. Plasticity in the nervous system. Consequences of sensory deprivation in the visual cortex. Ageing. Transplantation

Questions for the student lab report:

1. Amount, specific gravity and pH of the urine
2. Glycosuria: its causes and its detection
3. Examination of the urine sediment and evaluation of its results
4. Protein and pus in the urine: their causes and their detection
5. Measurement of the actual metabolic rate in human
6. Measurement of the oxygen consumption in rat.
7. Determination of blood glucose levels. Fasting blood glucose level
8. Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT)
9. Examination of estrus cycle in the rat
10. Tests of pregnancy: Latex probe, Test strip
11. Measurement threshold, chronaxie and rheobase on nerve preparation
12. Recording compound action potential, examination of summation on nerve preparation
13. Determination of nerve refractory period on nerve preparation
14. Examination of electrotonus
15. The law of polar excitation
16. Pflüger’s laws
17. Measuring of threshold, chronaxie and rheobase in humans. Motor point localization
18. Measurement of nerve conduction velocity
19. The muscle-nerve preparation. Direct and indirect electric stimulation of muscle-nerve preparation
20. Examination of effect of curare on a muscle-nerve preparation
21. Reflex tone (Brondgeest’s phenomenon), law of Bell and Magendie
22. Spinal reflexes. Examination of reflexes in human
23. Examination of the somatosensory system (tactile, temperature and pain sensation)
24. Measurement of reaction time and action time in human.
25. Method of stereotaxic surgery
26. Stereotaxic operation and its fields of use in neuroscience and neurosurgery
27. Examination of visual acuity
28. Correction of refractive errors
29. Examination of accommodation
30. Examination of color vision
31. Examination of depth perception. Examination of fusion frequency
32. Visual contrasts, afterimages, color mixing
33. Examination of astigmatism
34. Ophthalmoscopic examination
35. Examination of pupillary responses
36. Examination of the visual field by means of perimetry
37. Audiometry
38. Examination of air and bone conduction (audible inspections)
39. Examination of the tympanic membrane
40. Examination of the nasal cavity, laryngoscopy
41. Examination of taste perception; examination of olfaction
42. Examination of the vestibular system
43. EEG (procedure of EEG examination, types and properties of EEG waves)
44. Properties of physiological EEG in awake and sleeping state


Study material for the final exam is the sum total of information covered in the obligatory textbook, on the homepage of the Institute, as well as knowledge given at the lectures and lab practices.

Examiners

• Dr. Ábrahám István Miklós
• Dr. Barabás Klaudia
• Dr. Buzás Péter
• Dr. Buzásné Dr. Telkes Ildikó
• Dr. Gálosi Rita
• Dr. Jandó Gábor
• Dr. Karádi Zoltán
• Dr. Kertes Erika
• Dr. Kóbor Péter
• Dr. Környei József László
• Dr. Kövesdi Erzsébet
• Dr. László Kristóf
• Dr. Lénárd László Csaba
• Dr. Lengyel Ferenc
• Dr. Ollmann Tamás
• Dr. Pál József
• Dr. Péczely László Zoltán
• Dr. Petykó Zoltán
• Dr. Ráczné Dr. Mikó-Baráth Eszter
• Dr. Varga Csaba
• Dr. Vértes Zsuzsanna
• Dr. Zelena Dóra Tímea
• Péliné Dr. Kovács Anita

Instructor / tutor of practices and seminars

• Dr. Jandó Gábor
• Dr. Kertes Erika
• Dr. Kóbor Péter
• Dr. László Kristóf
• Dr. Lengyel Ferenc
• Dr. Péczely László Zoltán
• Dr. Szabó István
• Dr. Varga Csaba