Human Physiology 2 - Theory

Data

Official data in SubjectManager for the following academic year: 2024-2025

Topic

The most important mission of the Physiology Course in medical education is to familiarize students with the attributes of healthy functions of the living organism.

While acquiring knowledge about the most important functional characteristics of the human body the students can rely on their prior studies in biology, biophysics, chemistry-biochemistry and anatomy.

During the semester we introduce the most important elements of functioning of the organs and organ systems, as well as their cooperation also required to adapting to the environment, and the factors affecting these processes.

Special emphasis is placed on the neural and humoral regulatory processes of these life-functions, which are vital to maintain and preserve the homeostasis of the organism.

With the transfer of all this knowledge we would like to mould a holistic attitude and thinking of students, which will enable them to better understand the functions of the now healthy, however, later dysfunctional human organism.

Lectures

• 1. Introduction. Regulation of the body's pH. - Péliné Kovács Anita
• 2. The hypothalamo-hypophyseal system. The neurohypophysis. - Lengyel Ferenc
• 3. Growth hormone and prolactin. - Péliné Kovács Anita
• 4. Synthesis and breakdown of steroid hormones. - László Bettina Réka (Csetényi)
• 5. Effects of glucocorticoids. - László Bettina Réka (Csetényi)
• 6. Physiological mechanisms of stress. - László Bettina Réka (Csetényi)
• 7. Endocrine secretion of the pancreas. - Kövesdi Erzsébet
• 8. Hormonal regulation of food intake and metabolism. Function of adipose tissue. Diabetes and obesity. - Kövesdi Erzsébet
• 9. Thyroid. - Péliné Kovács Anita
• 10. Regulation of calcium homeostasis. - Péliné Kovács Anita
• 11. Regulation of female reproductive function. - Kertes Erika
• 12. Male reproductive functions. Physiology of sexual intercourse, fertilization, and the physiology of pregnancy. - Lengyel Ferenc
• 13. Pregnancy. Childbirth and breastfeeding. Sexual and parental behavior. - Kertes Erika
• 14. Ontogenesis and growth. - Pál József
• 15. Puberty, menopause, and aging. - Pál József
• 16. Energy expenditure. Metabolism. - Kertes Erika
• 17. Body temperature. Fever. - Kertes Erika
• 18. Peripheral and central regulation of body temperature. - Kertes Erika
• 19. Introduction to the physiology of the nervous system. - Kovács Gergely
• 20. Function of the spinal cord. - Kovács Gergely
• 21. Cortical motor functions and the pyramidal system. - Kertes Erika
• 22. The extrapyramidal system, basal ganglia. - Kertes Erika
• 23. Function of the labyrinth and vestibular nuclei. - Ollmann Tamás
• 24. Function of the cerebellum. - Ollmann Tamás
• 25. The role of the brainstem in motor control. Postural coordination, righting. - Kertes Erika
• 26. Locomotion. - Kertes Erika
• 27. Somatosensory functions. Epicritic and protopathic sensations. Anatomy of the thalamus and somatosensory cortex. - Varga Csaba (Élettan)
• 28. Physiology of pain. Opioid mechanisms. - Varga Csaba (Élettan)
• 29. Optics. Refractive errors of the eye. - Jandó Gábor
• 30. Retinal mechanisms. Visual pathways, mesencephalic mechanisms. - Jandó Gábor
• 31. Central mechanisms of vision. Eye movements. - Jandó Gábor
• 32. Physiology of the auditory organ. Central nervous system mechanisms of hearing. - Henn-Mike Nóra
• 33. Chemical senses. Olfaction. Taste sensation. - Szabó István (Élettan)
• 34. Methods of examination of the central nervous system. EEG, evoked responses. - Varga Csaba (Élettan)
• 35. Regulation of wakefulness and sleep. biological rhythms. - Varga Csaba (Élettan)
• 36. The integrative role of the hypothalamus (motor, autonomic, and hormonal regulation). - Ollmann Tamás
• 37. Limbic system: anatomy, function, and dysfunctions. - Ollmann Tamás
• 38. Emotions. - Ollmann Tamás
• 39. Learning and memory I. - Péczely László Zoltán
• 40. Learning and memory II. Plasticity throughout life. - Péczely László Zoltán
• 41. Function of the frontal and parieto-temporal cortex, its lesions. - Pál József
• 42. Physiological mechanisms of thinking and speech. Hemisphere dominance. - Pál József

Practices

Seminars

Reading material

Obligatory literature

John E. Hall & Michael E. Hall: Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology (Elsevier), 14th Edition, 2020, ISBN: 0323597122 (Elsevier)

Literature developed by the Department

Figures of the lectures given are available on the homepage of Institute of Physiology and on the Neptun Meet Street.

Important messages on new information will be announced at the lectures and will be sent to you by course mails.

Please always find the current updated information and study materials on the homepage of the Institute of Physiology (physiology.aok.pte.hu).

Notes

Homepage of PTE ÁOK Institute of Physiology: Physiology Lab Practices 2, internet study material, printable notebook, 2024

Homepage of PTE ÁOK Institute of Physiology: Physiology Lab Practice Worksheets 2, internet study material, printable notebook, 2024

Recommended literature

Pocket Companion to Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology (Guyton Physiology) 14th Edition by John E. Hall PhD, Michael E. Hall MD MSc. (2020)

Thomas M. Jessell Steven A. Siegelbaum: Principles of Neural Science, Sixth Edition, 2021, ISBN: 9781259642234 (McGraw-Hill)

Kim Barrett, Susan Barman, Jason Yuan, Heddwen Brooks Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology, McGraw-Hill Education 26th Edition (2019)

Conditions for acceptance of the semester

To have the semester signed, students must pass the oral lab exam on the 14th week at the time of their scheduled lab practice, where they have two chances to pass. Students with bonus points from both mid-term tests are not required to take the oral lab report on the 14th week. If the student has missed between 15 and 25% of the practical classes, an additional test question will be asked in the oral report.

Mid-term exams

Two written mid-term tests during the semester. Oral lab report on the 14th week of the semester.

Making up for missed classes

The missed lab practice is advised to be covered by joining another group while the same topic is on schedule.

Exam topics/questions

The criterion of admission to the exam is the successful completion of the practice carried out in parallel (mid-term semester grade with the result different from "failed").

Topics of questions for the theoretical examination:

1.     Homeostasis and principles of homeostatic regulation.

2.     Cellular transport processes. Humoral regulatory mechanisms.

3.     Membrane phenomena of excitation: equilibrium potential, electrotonic potential.

4.     Formation of action potential in nerve and muscle cells.

5.     Propagation of the action potential in nerve fibers. Classification of peripheral axons.

6.     Neurotransmission: function of synapses.

7.     Function of sensory neurons.

8.     General characteristics of the autonomic nervous system. Adrenal medulla.

9.     Body fluid compartments in humans, their definition, chemical composition.

10.  Inorganic and organic components of blood.

11.  Red blood cells, hematocrit, anemia.

12.  White blood cells (leukocytes) physiological role, blood picture.

13.  Blood group systems.

14.  Blood coagulation and properties of platelet.

15.  Functioning of the neuromuscular junction. Electromechanical coupling. Molecular basis of muscle function.

16.  Mechanics, energetics, heat production, and fatigue of muscle function.

17.  Muscle force regulation, the motor unit, types of skeletal muscle fibers.

18.  Electrical phenomena of muscle function, electromyography, muscle tone.

19.  Smooth muscle function. Comparison of muscle types.

20.  Structural and functional properties of cardiac muscle. The pacemaker and conduction system of the heart.

21.  Basics of electrocardiography, the electrocardiogram.

22.  The mechanical cardiac cycle: pressure and volume changes in the heart chambers. Heart sounds.

23.  Cardiac output. The function of the heart. Blood pressure, pulse.

24.  Basics of hemodynamics and hemorheology. Hemodynamic characterization of individual blood vessels. 

25.  Physiology of capillary circulation.

26.  The venous and lymph circulation. Edema formation.

27.  Circulatory regulation: short-term, nervous regulation of arterial blood pressure. 

28.  Circulatory control: humoral and local control.

29.  Circulation of the coronary arteries. Characteristics of cerebral blood circulation and cerebrospinal fluid.

30.  Blood circulation of skeletal muscle, splanchnic area and skin. Redistribution of circulation.

31.  Biology and functions of the airways, pressure changes during breathing, dead spaces.

32.  Respiratory mechanics, respiratory function, respiratory work.

33.  Pulmonary circulation 

34.  Gas exchange in lungs and tissues.

35.  O2 and CO2 transport in the blood, causes and types of hypoxia.

36.  Chemical regulation of respiration.

37.  Peripheral and central nervous system mechanisms of respiratory control. Respiratory control reflexes.

38.  The gastrointestinal system. Digestive processes in the mouth. Swallowing.

39.  Digestive processes of the stomach: Motor functions of the stomach. Gastric secretion and its regulation.

40.  The exocrine pancreas: secretion and regulation. Digestion and absorption in the small intestine: Functioning of the gastrointestinal smooth muscle. The surface of the small intestine and its function, digestion, and absorption of nutrients.

41.  Physiology of liver function: Bile production of the liver, role of bile acid salts, the gallbladder. The role of the liver in metabolism.

42.  Functions of the large intestine. Passage of stool.

43.  Basic principles of the regulation of the gastrointestinal system.

44.  The basic principles of proper nutrition: nutritional requirements, protein requirements, dietary fibers, body mass index.

45.  Nutrition: water, mineral salts, vitamins, regulation of iron turnover.

46.  Glomerular filtration: factors that determine the quantity and quality of the filtrate.

47.  Renal blood flow. Regulation of GFR and RBF.

48.  General characterization of epithelial transport processes in renal tubules.

49.  Tubular reabsorption and secretion. Renal clearance.

50.  Renal tubular transport processes of organic substances: glucose, amino acids, ketone bodies, proteins, uric acid, urea, UBG.

51.  Tubular transport processes of NaCl and water, formation of the medullary osmotic gradient.

52.  Concentration and dilution of urine, osmoregulation.

53.  Volume regulation (regulation of Na+ balance and extracellular fluid volume). Regulation of the K+ homeostasis.

54.  The function of the urinary tract. Regulation of urination.

55.  Acid-base balance regulation

56.  General characteristics of the hypothalamus-hypophysis system. The neurohypophysis.

57.  Growth hormone secretion and prolactin

58.  Function of the adrenal cortex: synthesis and metabolism of steroid hormones. Mineralocorticoids and their effects.

59.  Effects of glucocorticoids.

60.  Physiological mechanisms of stress

61.  Endocrine secretion of the pancreas

62.  Hormonal regulation of intermediary metabolism.

63.  Function of the adipose tissue. Basics of body weight regulation.

64.  Blood glucose measurement and its clinical relevance

65.  Thyroid hormones: synthesis, regulation, effects,  hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism

66.  Hormonal regulation of calcium and phosphate balance

67.  Male reproductive functions. Physiology of coitus, fertilization, and pregnancy.

68.  Regulation of female reproductive function.

69.  Endocrinological changes during pregnancy. The placenta and the fetal placental unit

70.  Physiology of childbirth and breastfeeding

71.  Regulation of sexual behavior. Parental behavior.

72.  Puberty, menopause and aging.

73.  Energy balance. Metabolism.

74.  Body temperature. Fever.

75.  Peripheral and central regulation of body temperature

76.  General features of the nervous system: organization and homeostasis of nervous system

77.  The spinal cord and its role in sensory, motor and integrative functions

78.  Spinal cord reflexes: concept of reflex, classification and sexaminationof reflexes. Lesions of spinal cord

79.  Cortical motor function and the pyramidal system. Central and peripheral paresis.

80.  The extrapyramidal system. Basal ganglia

81.  How the labyrinth and vestibular nuclei work

82.  Cerebellar functions

83.  The role of the brainstem in motor functions

84.  Postural coordination and locomotion

85.  Somatosensory functions. Epicritical and protopathic sensations.

86.  Somatosensory pathways. Physiology of the thalamus and somatosensory cortex.

87.  Physiology of pain, function of analgesic pathways.

88.  Optics of the eye, refractive errors

89.  Retinal mechanisms

90.  Visual field and visual pathways.

91.  Cortical mechanisms of vision

92.  Colour vision and depth perception

93.  Oculomotor processes

94.  Function of the outer and middle ear. Hearing tests

95.  Function of the inner ear. Auditory pathways

96.  Neurophysiology of smell sensation

97.  Neurophysiology of taste sensations

98.  Methods of examination of the central nervous system

99.  Electroencephalogram (EEG), evoked potentials

100. Regulation of sleep-wake state

101. Biological rhythms. Regulation of the circadian rhythm.

102. The integrative role of the hypothalamus. Hunger and thirst

103. Anatomy functions and dysfunctions of the limbic system.

104. Central nervous system: Regulation of emotions

105. Learning and Memory I: Learning and its basic mechanisms

106. Learning and Memory II: Memory, memory functions, and neural structures related to memory functions

107. Function of the frontal and parieto-temporal cortex

108. Physiological mechanisms of mind and language. Hemisphere dominance.

Questions for the student lab report:

1. Amount, specific gravity and pH of the urine

2. Glycosuria: its causes and its detection

3. Examination of the urine sediment and evaluation of its results

4. Protein and pus in the urine: their causes and their detection

5. Measurement of the actual metabolic rate in human

6. Determination of blood glucose levels

7. Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT)

8. Examination of estrus cycle in the rat

9. Tests of pregnancy: Latex probe, Test strip

10. The muscle-nerve preparation. Direct and indirect electric stimulation of the muscle 

11. Examination of curare effect on a muscle-nerve preparation

12. The law of polar excitation

13. Examination of electrotonus

14. Pflüger’s laws

15. Measurement threshold, chronaxie and rheobase

16. Recording compound action potential, examination of summation

17. Determination of nerve refractory period

18. Measurement of nerve conduction velocity

19 Examination of reflexes in human

20. Examination of the somatosensory system (tactile, temperature and pain sensation)

21. Measurement of reaction time and action time in human.

22. Correction of refractive errors

23. Examination of color vision

24. Examination of astigmatism

25. Examination of visual acuity. Examination of pupillary responses.

26. Examination of visual field by means of perimetry

27. Audiometry

28. Examination of air and bone conduction (audible inspections)

29. Examination of taste perception; examination of olfaction

30. Procedure of EEG examination, types and properties of EEG waves

Study material for the final exam is the sum total of information covered in the obligatory textbook, on the homepage of the Institute, as well as knowledge given at the lectures and lab practices.

Examiners

• Buzás Péter
• Gálosi Rita
• Jandó Gábor
• Kertes Erika
• Környei József László
• Kovács Gergely
• László Kristóf
• Ollmann Tamás
• Pál József
• Péczely László Zoltán
• Szabó István (Élettan)
• Varga Csaba (Élettan)
• Vértes Zsuzsanna
• Zelena Dóra Tímea

Instructor / tutor of practices and seminars

• Cziger-Nemes Vanda Ágnes
• Kecskés Miklós
• Péliné Kovács Anita