Physiology 2

Data

Official data in SubjectManager for the following academic year: 2024-2025

Topic

The most important mission of the Physiology Course in medical education is to familiarize students with the attributes of healthy functions of the living organism.

While acquiring knowledge about the most important functional characteristics of the human body the students can rely on their prior studies in biology, biophysics, chemistry-biochemistry and anatomy.

During the semester we introduce the most important elements of functioning of the organs and organ systems, as well as their cooperation also required to adapting to the environment, and the factors affecting these processes.

Special emphasis is placed on the neural and humoral regulatory processes of these life-functions, which are vital to maintain and preserve the homeostasis of the organism.

With the transfer of all this knowledge we would like to mould a holistic attitude and thinking of students, which will enable them to better understand the functions of the now healthy, however, later dysfunctional human organism.

Lectures

• 1. Regulation of the body's pH I. - Zelena Dóra Tímea
• 2. Regulation of the body's pH II. - Zelena Dóra Tímea
• 3. Principles of hormonal regulation. - Zelena Dóra Tímea
• 4. General characteristics of the hypothalamus-hypophysis system. The neurohypophysis. - Zelena Dóra Tímea
• 5. Growth hormone and prolactin. - Lengyel Ferenc
• 6. Synthesis and breakdown of steroid hormones. Function of the adrenal cortex. - Lengyel Ferenc
• 7. Effects of glucocorticoids. - Lengyel Ferenc
• 8. Physiological mechanisms of stress. - László Kristóf
• 9. Endocrine secretion of the pancreas. - László Kristóf
• 10. Hormonal regulation of intermediary metabolism. - László Kristóf
• 11. Function of the adipose tissue. Basics of body weight regulation. - László Kristóf
• 12. Clinical overview: Diabetes and obesity. - Molnár Gergő Attila
• 13. Thyroid I. - Környei József László
• 14. Thyroid II. - Környei József László
• 15. Regulation of calcium homeostasis. - Környei József László
• 16. Regulation of female reproductive function. - Környei József László
• 17. Male reproductive functions. Physiology of sexual intercourse, fertilization, and the physiology of pregnancy. - Kóbor Péter
• 18. Pregnancy. - Ráczné Mikó-Baráth Eszter
• 19. Childbirth and breastfeeding. - Ráczné Mikó-Baráth Eszter
• 20. Regulation of sexual behavior. Parental behavior. - Kóbor Péter
• 21. Ontogenesis and growth. - Környei József László
• 22. Puberty, menopause, and aging. - Környei József László
• 23. Energy balance. Metabolism. - Kertes Erika
• 24. Body temperature. Fever. - Kertes Erika
• 25. Peripheral and central regulation of body temperature. - Kertes Erika
• 26. Basics of sports physiology. - Kóbor Péter
• 27. Introduction to the physiology of the nervous system, general properties. - Varga Csaba (Élettan)
• 28. Function of the spinal cord I. - Kóbor Péter
• 29. Function of the spinal cord II. - Kóbor Péter
• 30. Cortical motor functions and the pyramidal system. - Lénárd László Csaba (Élettan)
• 31. The extrapyramidal system, basal ganglia I. - Péczely László Zoltán
• 32. The extrapyramidal system, basal ganglia II. - Péczely László Zoltán
• 33. Function of the labyrinth and vestibular nuclei. - Péczely László Zoltán
• 34. Function of the cerebellum I. - Péczely László Zoltán
• 35. Function of the cerebellum II. - Péczely László Zoltán
• 36. The role of the brainstem in motor control. Postural coordination, righting. - Kertes Erika
• 37. Locomotion. - Kertes Erika
• 38. Somatosensory functions. Epicritic and protopathic sensations. - Lénárd László Csaba (Élettan)
• 39. Somatosensory pathways. Anatomy of the thalamus and somatosensory cortex. - Lénárd László Csaba (Élettan)
• 40. Peripheral heat sensation and itching. Physiology of pain I. - Lénárd László Csaba (Élettan)
• 41. Physiology of pain II. - Lénárd László Csaba (Élettan)
• 42. Protection of the eye. Intraocular pressure. Image formation of the eye, refractive errors I. - Jandó Gábor
• 43. Image formation of the eye, refractive errors II. Retinal mechanisms. - Jandó Gábor
• 44. Visual field and visual pathways. Primary visual cortex. - Jandó Gábor
• 45. Central mechanisms of vision. Color vision. - Jandó Gábor
• 46. Depth perception. Eye movements. - Jandó Gábor
• 47. Physiology of the auditory organ I. - Buzásné Telkes Ildikó
• 48. Physiology of the auditory organ II. - Buzásné Telkes Ildikó
• 49. Central nervous system mechanisms of hearing. - Buzásné Telkes Ildikó
• 50. Chemical senses I. Olfaction. - Szabó István (Élettan)
• 51. Chemical senses II. Taste sensation. - Szabó István (Élettan)
• 52. Methods of examination of the central nervous system I. - Varga Csaba (Élettan)
• 53. Methods of examination of the central nervous system II. EEG, evoked responses. - Varga Csaba (Élettan)
• 54. Regulation of wakefulness and sleep. - Varga Csaba (Élettan)
• 55. Regulation of biological rhythms. - Varga Csaba (Élettan)
• 56. Brain activating systems: reticular activating system and neurohormonal control. Monoamines. - Varga Csaba (Élettan)
• 57. Clinical highlights: sleep studies, sleep disorders. - Faludi Béla
• 58. Central regulation of autonomic functions. - László Kristóf
• 59. Integrative role of the hypothalamus. Hunger and thirst. - László Kristóf
• 60. Central organization of behavioral responses: motivation. - László Kristóf
• 61. Anatomy and functions of the limbic system. Reward, dopamine. - Péczely László Zoltán
• 62. Dysfunctions of the limbic system. The role of monoaminergic systems. - Péczely László Zoltán
• 63. Emotions. - Péczely László Zoltán
• 64. Learning and memory I. - László Kristóf
• 65. Learning and memory II. - László Kristóf
• 66. Learning and memory III. Plasticity, developmental neurology, and geriatric neurophysiology. - Varga Csaba (Élettan)
• 67. Function of the frontal and parieto-temporal cortex. - Lénárd László Csaba (Élettan)
• 68. Injuries to the frontal and parieto-temporal cortex. - Lénárd László Csaba (Élettan)
• 69. Physiological mechanisms of thinking and speech. Hemisphere dominance. - Lénárd László Csaba (Élettan)
• 70. Clinical highlights: Organization of cognitive functions. Neuropathology of memory disorders. - Péczely László Zoltán

Practices

• 1. Examination of the renal functions: urinanalysis.
• 2. Examination of the renal functions: urinanalysis.
• 3. Seminar: Calculation of renal clearance.
• 4. Seminar: Measurement methods of the GFR.
• 5. Measurement of the oxygen consumption in the rat.
• 6. Measurement of the oxygen consumption in the rat.
• 7. Measurement of the actual metabolic rate in human.
• 8. Measurement of the actual metabolic rate in human.
• 9. Endocrinology: examination of carbohydrate metabolism.
• ...

  10. Endocrinology: examination of carbohydrate metabolism.

  11. Endocrinology: examination of carbohydrate metabolism.
• 12. Endocrinology: examination of carbohydrate metabolism.
• 13. Endocrinology: reproduction, tests of pregnancy.
• ...

  14. Endocrinology: reproduction, tests of pregnancy.

  15. Endocrinology: reproduction, tests of pregnancy.
• 16. Endocrinology: reproduction, tests of pregnancy.
• 17. Seminar: basic neural functions.
• 18. Seminar: basic neural functions.
• 19. Examination of basic neural functions using computer simulation.
• 20. Examination of neural basic neural functions using computer simulation.
• 21. Examination of peripheral nervous system on nerve preparation.
• ...

  22. Examination of peripheral nervous system on nerve preparation.

  23. Examination of peripheral nervous system on nerve preparation.
• 24. Examination of peripheral nervous system on nerve preparation.
• 25. Examination of human peripheral nervous system: treshold potential, chronaxie, rheobase,
• 26. Examination of human peripheral nervous system: treshold potential, chronaxie, rheobase,
• 27. Examination of human peripheral nervous system: nerve conduction velocity.
• 28. Examination of human peripheral nervous system: nerve conduction velocity.
• 29. Examination of reflexes in human.
• 30. Examination of reflexes in human.
• 31. Examination of somatosensoric system.
• 32. Measurement of reaction time and action time in human.
• 33. Method of stereotaxic surgery
• ...

  34. Method of stereotaxic surgery

  35. Method of stereotaxic surgery
• 36. Method of stereotaxic surgery
• 37. Examinations of special senses: vision
• ...

  38. Examinations of special senses: vision

  39. Examinations of special senses: vision

  40. Examinations of special senses: vision

  41. Examinations of special senses: vision

  42. Examinations of special senses: vision

  43. Examinations of special senses: vision
• 44. Examinations of special senses: vision
• 45. Examinations of special senses: taste and smell
• 46. Examinations of special senses: taste and smell
• 47. Examinations of special senses: hearing and equilibrium
• 48. Examinations of special senses: hearing and equilibrium
• 49. Electroencephalography in humans
• ...

  50. Electroencephalography in humans

  51. Electroencephalography in humans
• 52. Electroencephalography in humans
• 53. Discussion of the laboratory practicies and oral report.
• 54. Discussion of the laboratory practices and oral report.
• ...

  55. Discussion of the laboratory practices and oral report.
• 56. Discussion of the laboratory practices and oral report.

Seminars

Reading material

Obligatory literature

John E. Hall & Michael E. Hall: Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology (Elsevier), 14th Edition, 2020, ISBN: 0323597122 (Elsevier)

Literature developed by the Department

Figures of the lectures given are available on the homepage of Institute of Physiology and on the Neptun Meet Street.

Important messages on new information will be announced at the lectures and will be sent to you by course mails.

Please always find the current updated information and study materials on the homepage of the Institute of Physiology (physiology.aok.pte.hu).

Notes

Homepage of PTE ÁOK Institute of Physiology: Physiology Lab Practices 2, internet study material, printable notebook, 2024

Homepage of PTE ÁOK Institute of Physiology: Physiology Lab Practice Worksheets 2, internet study material, printable notebook, 2024

Recommended literature

Kim Barrett, Susan Barman, Jason Yuan, Heddwen Brooks Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology, McGraw-Hill Education 26th Edition (2019)

Thomas M. Jessell Steven A. Siegelbaum: Principles of Neural Science, Sixth Edition, 2021, ISBN: 9781259642234 (McGraw-Hill)

Pocket Companion to Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology (Guyton Physiology) 14th Edition by John E. Hall PhD, Michael E. Hall MD MSc. (2020)

Conditions for acceptance of the semester

To have the semester signed, students must pass the oral lab report on the 14th week at the time of their scheduled lab practice, where they have two chances to pass. Students with bonus points are not required to take the oral lab report on the 14th week. If the student has missed between 15 and 25% of the practical classes, an additional test question will be asked in the oral report.

Mid-term exams

Students have two written mid-term tests during the semester, where bonus points can be collected.

Making up for missed classes

The missed lab practice is advised to be covered by joining another group while the same topic is on schedule.

Exam topics/questions

Topics of questions for the theoretical examination:

1.      Homeostasis and principles of homeostatic regulation

2.      Cellular transport processes

3.      Ligands and receptors, signal transduction.

4.      The cell's resting membrane potential

5.      Formation of action potential in nerve and muscle cells

6.      Propagation of the action potential in nerve fibers. Classification of peripheral axons

7.      Neurotransmission: function of synapses

8.      Function of sensory neurons

9.      General characteristics of the autonomic nervous system. The parasympathetic nervous system. Autonomic afferents

10.   General characteristics of the autonomic nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system. Adrenal medulla

11.   Body fluid compartments in humans, their definition, chemical composition

12.   Inorganic and organic components of blood

13.   Red blood cells, hematocrit, anemia

14.   White blood cells (leukocytes) physiological role, blood picture

15.   Blood group systems

16.   Blood coagulation I: Primary hemostasis and properties of platelet

17.   Blood coagulation II: Secondary hemostasis. Mechanisms inhibiting blood clotting. Fibrinolysis

18.   Function of the neuromuscular junction. Electromechanical coupling

19.   Molecular basis of muscle function; the role of calcium ions in muscle contraction

20.   Mechanics, energetics, heat production, and fatigue of muscle function

21.   Muscle force regulation, the motor unit, types of skeletal muscle fibers

22.   Electrical phenomena of muscle function, electromyography, muscle tone

23.   Smooth muscle function. Comparison of muscle types

24.   Structural and functional properties of cardiac muscle, cellular electrophysiology

25.   Basics of electrocardiography: The pacemaker and conduction system of the heart. Generation of the electrocardiogram

26.   Analysis of the electrocardiogram: The 12-lead ECG recording. Analysis of the ECG. Determination of the electrical axis

27.   The mechanical cardiac cycle: pressure and volume changes in the heart chambers. Heart sounds

28.   Basics of cardiac muscle mechanics, the Frank-Starling law of the heart

29.   Basics of hemodynamics and hemorheology. Hemodynamic characterization of individual blood vessels

30.   Measurement and determining factors of cardiac output. The Guyton diagram (ventricular and systemic vascular function curve)

31.   The function of the arterial system. Blood pressure, pulse

32.   Physiology of capillary circulation

33.   The venous and lymph circulation. Edema formation

34.   Circulatory regulation: local regulation of blood flow

35.   Circulatory regulation: short-term, nervous regulation of arterial blood pressure

36.   Circulatory control: humoral and long-term control of blood pressure

37.   The work and metabolism of the heart, circulation of the coronary arteries

38.   Characteristics of cerebral blood circulation and cerebrospinal fluid

39.   Blood circulation of skeletal muscle, splanchnic area and skin. Redistribution of circulation

40.   Biology and functions of the airways, pressure changes during breathing, dead spaces

41.   Respiratory mechanics, respiratory function, respiratory work

42.   Pulmonary circulation

43.   Gas exchange in lungs and tissues

44.   O2 and CO2 transport in the blood, causes and types of hypoxia

45.   Chemical regulation of respiration

46.   Peripheral and central nervous system mechanisms of respiratory control. Respiratory control reflexes

47.   Functions of the gastrointestinal system. Digestive processes in the mouth. Swallowing

48.   Digestive processes of the stomach: motor functions of the stomach

49.   Digestive processes of the stomach: gastric secretion and its regulation. The exocrine pancreas: secretion and regulation

50.   The small intestine: digestion and absorption I. Characteristics of the functioning of the gastrointestinal smooth muscle, adaptation of the circulation of the intestinal canal to the function

51.   The small intestine: digestion and absorption II. The surface of the small intestine and its function, digestion and absorption of nutrients

52.   Physiology of liver function I. Blood supply of the liver, functional units, bile production, role of bile acid salts. The gallbladder

53.   Physiology of liver function II. The role of the liver in metabolism. The fate of bilirubin, jaundice. Other functions of the liver

54.   Functions of the large intestine. Passage of stool

55.   Basic principles of the regulation of the gastrointestinal system

56.   The basic principles of proper nutrition: nutritional requirements, protein requirements, dietary fibers, body mass index

57.   Nutrition: water, mineral salts, vitamins, regulation of iron turnover

58.   Glomerular filtration: factors that determine the quantity and quality of the filtrate

59.   Renal blood flow. Regulation of GFR and RBF

60.   General characterization of epithelial transport processes in renal tubules

61.   Tubular reabsorption and secretion. Renal clearance

62.   Renal tubular transport processes of organic substances: glucose, amino acids, ketone bodies, proteins, uric acid, urea, UBG

63.   Tubular transport processes of NaCl and water, formation of the medullary osmotic gradient

64.   Concentration and dilution of urine, osmoregulation

65.   Volume regulation (regulation of Na+ balance and extracellular fluid volume)

66.   Regulation of the K+ homeostasis

67.   The function of the urinary tract. Regulation of urination

68.   Acid-base balance regulation

69.   Measurement and disturbances of the acid-base balance

70.   Basic principles of humoral regulation

71.   General characteristics of the hypothalamus-hypophysis system. The neurohypophysis

72.   Growth hormone secretion and prolactin

73.   Function of the adrenal cortex: synthesis and metabolism of steroid hormones. Mineralocorticoids and their effects

74.   Effects of glucocorticoids

75.   Physiological mechanisms of stress

76.   Endocrine secretion of the pancreas

77.   Hormonal regulation of intermediary metabolism

78.   Function of the adipose tissue. Basics of body weight regulation

79.   Blood glucose measurement and its clinical relevance

80.   Thyroid hormones: synthesis, regulation

81.   Effects of thyroid hormones, hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism

82.   Hormonal regulation of calcium and phosphate balance

83.   Male reproductive functions. Physiology of coitus, fertilization, and pregnancy

84.   Regulation of female reproductive function

85.   Endocrinological changes during pregnancy. The placenta and the fetal placental unit

86.   Physiology of childbirth and breastfeeding

87.   Regulation of sexual behavior. Parental behavior

88.   Puberty, menopause and aging

89.   Energy balance. Metabolism

90.   Body temperature. Peripheral regulation of body temperature

91.   Central regulation of body temperature. Hypothermia, hyperthermia, fever

92.   General features of the nervous system: organization and homeostasis of nervous system

93.   The spinal cord and its role in sensory, motor and integrative functions

94.   Spinal cord reflexes: concept of reflex, classification and sexaminationof reflexes. Lesions of spinal cord

95.   Cortical motor function and the pyramidal system. Central and peripheral paresis

96.   The extrapyramidal system. Basal ganglia

97.     How the labyrinth and vestibular nuclei work

98.     Cerebellar functions

99.     The role of the brainstem in motor functions

100.  Postural coordination and locomotion

101.  Somatosensory functions. Epicritical and protopathic sensations

102.  Somatosensory pathways. Physiology of the thalamus and somatosensory cortex

103.  Physiology of pain, function of analgesic pathways

104.  Protection of the eyes. The intraocular pressure

105.  Optics of the eye, refractive errors

106.  Retinal mechanisms

107.  Visual field and visual pathways

108.  Cortical mechanisms of vision

109.  Colour vision and depth perception and their disorders

110.  Oculomotor processes

111.  Function of the outer and middle ear. Hearing tests

112.  Central nervous mechanisms of hearing. Auditory pathways

113.  Neurophysiology of smell sensation

114.  Neurophysiology of taste sensations

115.  Methods of examination of the central nervous system

116.  Electroencephalogram (EEG), evoked potentials

117.  Regulation of sleep-wake state

118.  Biological rhythms. Regulation of the circadian rhythm

119.  Activation systems of the brain: reticular activation system and neurohormonal control, monoamines

120.  Central regulation of autonomous functions

121.  The integrative role of the hypothalamus. Hunger and thirst

122.  Organization of behavioral responses in the central nervous system: motivation

123.  Anatomy and functions of the limbic system. Reward and Dopamine

124.  Central nervous system: Regulation of emotions

125.  Learning and its basic mechanisms

126.  Memory functions, and neural structures related to memory functions

127.  Cellular mechanisms of learning and memory, plasticity

128.  Function of the frontal and parieto-temporal cortex

129.  Lesion of the frontal and parieto-temporal cortex

130.  Physiological mechanisms of mind and language. Hemisphere dominance

Questions for the student lab report:

1.     Amount, specific gravity and pH of the urine

2.     Glycosuria: its causes and its detection

3.     Examination of the urine sediment and evaluation of its results

4.     Protein and pus in the urine: their causes and their detection

5.     Measurement of the actual metabolic rate in human

6.     Measurement of the oxygen consumption in rat.

7.     Determination of blood glucose levels. Fasting blood glucose level

8.     Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT)

9.     Examination of estrus cycle in the rat

10.  Tests of pregnancy: Latex probe, Test strip

11.  Measurement threshold, chronaxie and rheobase on nerve preparation

12.  Recording compound action potential, examination of summation on nerve preparation

13.  Determination of nerve refractory period on nerve preparation

14.  Examination of electrotonus

15.  The law of polar excitation

16.  Pflüger’s laws

17.  Measuring of threshold, chronaxie and rheobase in humans. Motor point localization

18.  Measurement of nerve conduction velocity

19.  The muscle-nerve preparation. Direct and indirect electric stimulation of muscle-nerve preparation

20.  Examination of effect of curare on a muscle-nerve preparation

21.  Reflex tone (Brondgeest’s phenomenon), law of Bell and Magendie

22.  Spinal reflexes. Examination of reflexes in human

23.  Examination of the somatosensory system (tactile, temperature and pain sensation)

24.  Measurement of reaction time and action time in human.

25.  Method of stereotaxic surgery

26.  Stereotaxic operation and its fields of use in neuroscience and neurosurgery

27.  Examination of visual acuity

28.  Correction of refractive errors

29.  Examination of accommodation

30.  Examination of color vision

31.  Examination of depth perception. Examination of fusion frequency

32.  Visual contrasts, afterimages, color mixing

33.  Examination of astigmatism

34.  Ophthalmoscopic examination

35.  Examination of pupillary responses

36.  Examination of the visual field by means of perimetry

37.  Audiometry

38.  Examination of air and bone conduction (audible inspections)

39.  Examination of the tympanic membrane

40.  Examination of the nasal cavity, laryngoscopy

41.  Examination of taste perception; examination of olfaction

42.  Examination of the vestibular system

43.  EEG (procedure of EEG examination, types and properties of EEG waves)

44.  Properties of physiological EEG in awake and sleeping state

Study material for the final exam is the sum total of information covered in the obligatory textbook, on the homepage of the Institute, as well as knowledge given at the lectures and lab practices.

Examiners

• Barabás Klaudia
• Buzás Péter
• Buzásné Telkes Ildikó
• Gálosi Rita
• Jandó Gábor
• Kecskés Miklós
• Kertes Erika
• Kóbor Péter
• Környei József László
• Kovács Gergely
• Kövesdi Erzsébet
• László Bettina Réka (Csetényi)
• László Kristóf
• Lengyel Ferenc
• Marosné Berta Beáta
• Ollmann Tamás
• Pál József
• Péczely László Zoltán
• Péliné Kovács Anita
• Petykó Zoltán
• Ráczné Mikó-Baráth Eszter
• Sziládiné Fusz Katalin
• Szőcs Szilárd
• Varga Csaba (Élettan)
• Vértes Zsuzsanna
• Zelena Dóra Tímea

Instructor / tutor of practices and seminars

• Barabás Klaudia
• Henn-Mike Nóra
• Hormay Edina Emőke
• Jandó Gábor
• Kertes Erika
• Kóbor Péter
• Környei József László
• KURZUSHOZ RENDELT OKTATÓ
• László Kristóf
• Lengyel Ferenc
• Péczely László Zoltán
• Szabó István (Élettan)
• Szőcs Szilárd
• Varga Csaba (Élettan)
• Vértes Zsuzsanna
• Zagorácz Olga