Physiology 2

Data

Official data in SubjectManager for the following academic year: 2025-2026

Topic

The most important mission of the Physiology Course in medical education is to familiarize students with the attributes of healthy functions of the living organism.

While acquiring knowledge about the most important functional characteristics of the human body the students can rely on their prior studies in biology, biophysics, chemistry-biochemistry and anatomy.

During the semester we introduce the most important elements of functioning of the organs and organ systems, as well as their cooperation also required to adapting to the environment, and the factors affecting these processes.

Special emphasis is placed on the neural and humoral regulatory processes of these life-functions, which are vital to maintain and preserve the homeostasis of the organism.

With the transfer of all this knowledge we would like to mould a holistic attitude and thinking of students, which will enable them to better understand the functions of the now healthy, however, later dysfunctional human organism.

Lectures

• 1. Regulation of the body's pH I. - Zelena Dóra Tímea
• 2. Regulation of the body's pH II. - Zelena Dóra Tímea
• 3. Principles of hormonal regulation. - Lengyel Ferenc
• 4. General characteristics of the hypothalamus-hypophysis system. The neurohypophysis. - Lengyel Ferenc
• 5. Growth hormone and prolactin. - Lengyel Ferenc
• 6. Synthesis and breakdown of steroid hormones. Function of the adrenal cortex. - Lengyel Ferenc
• 7. Effects of glucocorticoids. - Lengyel Ferenc
• 8. Physiological mechanisms of stress. - László Kristóf
• 9. Endocrine secretion of the pancreas. - László Kristóf
• 10. Hormonal regulation of intermediary metabolism. - László Kristóf
• 11. Function of the adipose tissue. Basics of body weight regulation. - László Kristóf
• 12. Clinical overview: Diabetes and obesity. - Molnár Gergő Attila
• 13. Thyroid I. - Környei József László
• 14. Thyroid II. - Környei József László
• 15. The hormonal regulation of calcium and phosphate metabolism, the physiology of bone formation. - Környei József László
• 16. Regulation of female reproductive function. - Környei József László
• 17. Male reproductive functions. Fertilization, and the physiology of pregnancy. - Kóbor Péter
• 18. Pregnancy. - Mikó-Baráth Eszter
• 19. Childbirth and breastfeeding. - Mikó-Baráth Eszter
• 20. Physiology of sexual intercourse. Regulation of sexual behavior. Parental behavior. - Kóbor Péter
• 21. Development: perinatal adaptation, growth, puberty. - Környei József László
• 22. Menopause, and aging. - Környei József László
• 23. Energy balance. Metabolism. - Kertes Erika
• 24. Body temperature. Fever. - Kertes Erika
• 25. Peripheral and central regulation of body temperature. - Kertes Erika
• 26. Basics of sports physiology. - Kóbor Péter
• 27. Introduction to the physiology of the nervous system, general properties. - Buzás Péter
• 28. Function of the spinal cord I. - Kóbor Péter
• 29. Function of the spinal cord II. - Kóbor Péter
• 30. Cortical motor functions and the pyramidal system. - Kóbor Péter
• 31. The extrapyramidal system, basal ganglia I. - Péczely László Zoltán
• 32. The extrapyramidal system, basal ganglia II. - Péczely László Zoltán
• 33. Function of the labyrinth and vestibular nuclei. - Péczely László Zoltán
• 34. Function of the cerebellum I. - Péczely László Zoltán
• 35. Function of the cerebellum II. - Péczely László Zoltán
• 36. The role of the brainstem in motor control. Postural coordination, righting. - Kertes Erika
• 37. Locomotion. - Kertes Erika
• 38. Somatosensory functions. Epicritic and protopathic sensations. - Lénárd László Csaba (Élettan)
• 39. Somatosensory pathways. Anatomy of the thalamus and somatosensory cortex. - Lénárd László Csaba (Élettan)
• 40. Peripheral heat sensation and itching. Physiology of pain I. - Lénárd László Csaba (Élettan)
• 41. Physiology of pain II. - Lénárd László Csaba (Élettan)
• 42. Protection of the eye. Intraocular pressure. Image formation of the eye, refractive errors I. - Jandó Gábor
• 43. Image formation of the eye, refractive errors II. Retinal mechanisms. - Jandó Gábor
• 44. Visual field and visual pathways. Primary visual cortex. - Jandó Gábor
• 45. Central mechanisms of vision. Color vision. - Jandó Gábor
• 46. Depth perception. Eye movements. - Jandó Gábor
• 47. Physiology of the auditory organ I. - Buzásné Telkes Ildikó
• 48. Physiology of the auditory organ II. - Buzásné Telkes Ildikó
• 49. Central nervous system mechanisms of hearing. - Buzásné Telkes Ildikó
• 50. Chemical senses I. Olfaction. - Szabó István (Élettan)
• 51. Chemical senses II. Taste sensation. - Szabó István (Élettan)
• 52. Methods of examination of the central nervous system I. - Varga Csaba (Élettan)
• 53. Methods of examination of the central nervous system II. EEG, evoked responses. - Varga Csaba (Élettan)
• 54. Regulation of wakefulness and sleep. - Varga Csaba (Élettan)
• 55. Brain activating systems: reticular activating system and neurohormonal control. Monoamines. - Varga Csaba (Élettan)
• 56. Regulation of biological rhythms. - Sziládiné Fusz Katalin
• 57. Clinical highlights: sleep studies, sleep disorders. - Faludi Béla
• 58. Central regulation of autonomic functions. - László Kristóf
• 59. Integrative role of the hypothalamus. Hunger and thirst. - László Kristóf
• 60. Central organization of behavioral responses: motivation. - László Kristóf
• 61. Anatomy and functions of the limbic system. Reward, dopamine. - Péczely László Zoltán
• 62. Dysfunctions of the limbic system. The role of monoaminergic systems. - Péczely László Zoltán
• 63. Emotions. - Péczely László Zoltán
• 64. Learning and memory I. - László Kristóf
• 65. Learning and memory II. - László Kristóf
• 66. Learning and memory III. Plasticity, developmental neurology, and geriatric neurophysiology. - Varga Csaba (Élettan)
• 67. Function of the frontal and parieto-temporal cortex. - Lénárd László Csaba (Élettan)
• 68. Injuries to the frontal and parieto-temporal cortex. - Lénárd László Csaba (Élettan)
• 69. Physiological mechanisms of thinking and speech. Hemisphere dominance. - Lénárd László Csaba (Élettan)
• 70. Clinical highlights: Organization of cognitive functions. Neuropathology of memory disorders. - Péczely László Zoltán

Practices

• 1. Examination of the renal functions: urinanalysis.
• 2. Examination of the renal functions: urinanalysis.
• 3. Seminar: Calculation of renal clearance.
• 4. Seminar: Measurement methods of the GFR.
• 5. Measurement of the actual metabolic rate in human.
• 6. Measurement of the actual metabolic rate in human.
• 7. Determination of the nutritional status in humans.
• 8. Measurement of body temperature.
• 9. Endocrinology: examination of carbohydrate metabolism.
• 10. Endocrinology: examination of carbohydrate metabolism.
• 11. Endocrinology: examination of carbohydrate metabolism.
• 12. Endocrinology: examination of carbohydrate metabolism.
• 13. Endocrinology: reproduction, tests of pregnancy.
• 14. Endocrinology: reproduction, tests of pregnancy.
• 15. Endocrinology: reproduction, tests of pregnancy.
• 16. Endocrinology: reproduction, tests of pregnancy.
• 17. Seminar: basic neural functions.
• 18. Seminar: basic neural functions.
• 19. Examination of basic neural functions using computer simulation.
• 20. Examination of neural basic neural functions using computer simulation.
• 21. Examination of peripheral nervous system on nerve preparation.
• 22. Examination of peripheral nervous system on nerve preparation.
• 23. Examination of peripheral nervous system on nerve preparation.
• 24. Examination of peripheral nervous system on nerve preparation.
• 25. Examination of human peripheral nervous system: threshold potential, chronaxie, rheobase,
• 26. Examination of human peripheral nervous system: threshold potential, chronaxie, rheobase,
• 27. Examination of human peripheral nervous system: nerve conduction velocity.
• 28. Examination of human peripheral nervous system: nerve conduction velocity.
• 29. Examination of reflexes in humans.
• 30. Examination of reflexes in humans.
• 31. Examination of somatosensory system.
• 32. Measurement of reaction time and action time in human.
• 33. Method of stereotaxic surgery
• 34. Method of stereotaxic surgery
• 35. Method of stereotaxic surgery
• 36. Method of stereotaxic surgery
• 37. Examinations of special senses: vision
• 38. Examinations of special senses: vision
• 39. Examinations of special senses: vision
• 40. Examinations of special senses: vision
• 41. Examinations of special senses: vision
• 42. Examinations of special senses: vision
• 43. Examinations of special senses: vision
• 44. Examinations of special senses: vision
• 45. Examinations of special senses: taste and smell
• 46. Examinations of special senses: taste and smell
• 47. Examinations of special senses: hearing and equilibrium
• 48. Examinations of special senses: hearing and equilibrium
• 49. Electroencephalography in humans
• 50. Electroencephalography in humans
• 51. Electroencephalography in humans
• 52. Electroencephalography in humans
• 53. Discussion of the laboratory practicies and oral report.
• 54. Discussion of the laboratory practices and oral report.
• 55. Discussion of the laboratory practices and oral report.
• 56. Discussion of the laboratory practices and oral report.

Seminars

Reading material

Obligatory literature

John E. Hall & Michael E. Hall: Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology (Elsevier), 14th Edition, 2020, ISBN: 0323597122 (Elsevier)

Literature developed by the Department

Slides of the lectures given are available on the homepage of Institute of Physiology and on the Neptun Meet Street. 

Important messages on new information will be announced at the lectures and will be sent to you by course mails. 

Please always find the current updated information and study materials on the homepage of the Institute of Physiology (physiology.aok.pte.hu). 

Notes

Homepage of PTE ÁOK Institute of Physiology: Physiology Lab Practices 2, internet study material, printable notebook, 2024

Homepage of PTE ÁOK Institute of Physiology: Physiology Lab Practice Worksheets 2, internet study material, printable notebook, 2024

Recommended literature

Kim Barrett, Susan Barman, Jason Yuan, Heddwen Brooks Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology, McGraw-Hill Education 26th Edition (2019)

Thomas M. Jessell Steven A. Siegelbaum: Principles of Neural Science, Sixth Edition, 2021, ISBN: 9781259642234 (McGraw-Hill)

Pocket Companion to Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology (Guyton Physiology) 14th Edition by John E. Hall PhD, Michael E. Hall MD MSc. (2020)

Conditions for acceptance of the semester

To have the semester signed, students must pass the oral lab report on the 14th week at the time of their scheduled lab practice, where they have two chances to pass. Students with bonus points are not required to take the oral lab report on the 14th week. If the student has missed between 15 and 25% of the practical classes, an additional test question will be asked in the oral report.

Mid-term exams

Students have two written mid-term tests during the semester, where bonus points can be collected.

Making up for missed classes

The missed lab practice is advised to be covered by joining another group while the same topic is on schedule.

Exam topics/questions

Topics of questions for the theoretical examination: 

1. Homeostasis and principles of homeostatic regulation. 

2. Cellular transport processes. 

3. Ligands and receptors, signal transduction. 

4. The cell's resting membrane potential. 

5. Formation of action potential in nerve and muscle cells. 

6. Propagation of the action potential in nerve fibers. Classification of peripheral axons. 

7. Neurotransmission: function of synapses. 

8. Function of sensory neurons. 

9.  General characteristics of the autonomic nervous system. The parasympathetic nervous system. Autonomic afferents. 

10.  General characteristics of the autonomic nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system. Adrenal medull.a 

11.  Body fluid compartments in humans, their definition, chemical composition. 

12.  Inorganic and organic components of blood. 

13.  Red blood cells, hematocrit, anemia. 

14.  White blood cells (leukocytes) physiological role, blood picture. 

15.  Blood group systems. 

16.  Blood coagulation I: Primary hemostasis and properties of platelet. 

17.  Blood coagulation II: Secondary hemostasis. Mechanisms inhibiting blood clotting. Fibrinolysis. 

18.  Function of the neuromuscular junction. Electromechanical coupling. 

19.  Molecular basis of muscle function; the role of calcium ions in muscle contraction. 

20.  Mechanics, energetics, heat production, and fatigue of muscle function. 

21.  Muscle force regulation, the motor unit, types of skeletal muscle fibers. 

22.  Electrical phenomena of muscle function, electromyography, muscle tone. 

23.  Smooth muscle function. Comparison of muscle types. 

24.  Biology and functions of the airways, pressure changes during breathing, dead spaces. 

25.  Respiratory mechanics, respiratory function, respiratory work. 

26.  Gas exchange in lungs and tissues. 

27.  O2 and CO2 transport in the blood, causes and types of hypoxia. 

28.  Chemical regulation of respiration. 

29.  Peripheral and central nervous system mechanisms of respiratory control. Respiratory control reflexes. 

30.  Structural and functional properties of cardiac muscle, cellular electrophysiology. 

31.  Basics of electrocardiography: The pacemaker and conduction system of the heart. Generation of theelectrocardiogram. 

32.  Analysis of the electrocardiogram: The 12-lead ECG recording. Analysis of the ECG. Determination of the electricalaxis. 

33.  The mechanical cardiac cycle: pressure and volume changes in the heart chambers. Heart sounds. 

34.  Basics of cardiac muscle mechanics, the Frank-Starling law of the heart. 

35.  Basics of hemodynamics and hemorheology. Hemodynamic characterization of individual blood vessels. 

36.  Measurement and determining factors of cardiac output. The Guyton diagram (ventricular and systemic vascularfunction curve). 

37.  The function of the arterial system. Blood pressure, pulse. 

38.  Physiology of capillary circulation. 

39.  The venous and lymph circulation. Edema formation. 

40.  Circulatory regulation: local regulation of blood flow. 

41.  Circulatory regulation: short-term, nervous regulation of arterial blood pressure. 

42.  Circulatory control: humoral and long-term control of blood pressure. 

43.  The work and metabolism of the heart, circulation of the coronary arteries. 

44.  Pulmonary circulation. Causes and types of hypoxia. 

45.  Characteristics of cerebral blood circulation and cerebrospinal fluid. 

46.  Blood circulation of skeletal muscle, splanchnic area and skin. Redistribution of circulation. 

47.  Functions of the gastrointestinal system. Digestive processes in the mouth. Swallowing. 

48.  Digestive processes of the stomach: motor functions of the stomach. 

49.  Digestive processes of the stomach: gastric secretion and its regulation. The exocrine pancreas: secretion andregulation. 

50.  The small intestine: digestion and absorption I. Characteristics of the functioning of the gastrointestinal smooth muscle,adaptation of the circulation of the intestinal canal to the function. 

51.  The small intestine: digestion and absorption II. The surface of the small intestine and its function, digestion andabsorption of nutrients. 

52.  Physiology of liver function I. Blood supply of the liver, functional units, bile production, role of bile acid salts. The gallbladder.

53.  Physiology of liver function II. The role of the liver in metabolism. The fate of bilirubin, jaundice. Other functions of the liver. 

54.  Functions of the large intestine. Passage of stool. 

55.  Basic principles of the regulation of the gastrointestinal system. 

56.  The basic principles of proper nutrition: nutritional requirements, protein requirements, dietary fibers, body mass index. 

57.  Nutrition: water, mineral salts, vitamins, regulation of iron turnover. 

58.  Glomerular filtration: factors that determine the quantity and quality of the filtrate. 

59.  Renal blood flow. Regulation of GFR and RBF. 

60.  General characterization of epithelial transport processes in renal tubules. 

61.  Tubular reabsorption and secretion. Renal clearance. 

62.  Renal tubular transport processes of organic substances: glucose, amino acids, ketone bodies, proteins, uric acid,urea, UBG. 

63.  Tubular transport processes of NaCl and water, establishment of medullary osmotic gradient. 

64.  Concentration and dilution of urine, osmoregulation. 

65.  Volume regulation (regulation of Na+ balance and extracellular fluid volume). 

66.  Regulation of the K+ homeostasis. 

67.  The function of the urinary tract. Regulation of micturition. 

68.  Acid-base balance regulation. 

69.  Measurement and disturbances of the acid-base balance. 

70.  Basic principles of humoral regulation. 

71.  General characteristics of the hypothalamus-hypophysis system. The neurohypophysis. 

72.  Growth hormone secretion and prolactin. 

73.  Function of the adrenal cortex: synthesis and metabolism of steroid hormones. Mineralocorticoids and their effects. 

74.  Effects of glucocorticoids. 

75.  Physiological mechanisms of stress. 

76.  Endocrine secretion of the pancreas. 

77.  Hormonal regulation of intermediary metabolism. 

78.  Function of the adipose tissue. Basics of body weight regulation. 

79.  Blood glucose measurement and its clinical relevance. 

80.  Thyroid hormones: synthesis, regulation. 

81.  Effects of thyroid hormones, hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. 

82.  Hormonal regulation of calcium and phosphate balance, the physiology of bone formation. 

83.  Male reproductive functions. Fertilization, and the physiology of pregnancy. 

84.  Regulation of female reproductive function. 

85.  Endocrinological changes during pregnancy. The placenta and the fetal placental unit. 

86.  Physiology of childbirth and breastfeeding. 

87.  Physiology of sexual intercourse. Regulation of sexual behavior. Parental behavior. 

88.  Development: perinatal adaptation, growth, puberty. 

89.  Energy balance. Metabolism. 

90.  Body temperature. Peripheral regulation of body temperature. 

91.  Central regulation of body temperature. Hypothermia, hyperthermia, fever. 

92.  General features of the nervous system: organization and homeostasis of nervous system. 

93.  The spinal cord and its role in sensory, motor and integrative functions. 

94.  Spinal cord reflexes: concept of reflex, classification and examination of reflexes. Lesions of spinal cord. 

95.  Cortical motor function and the pyramidal system. Central and peripheral paresis. 

96.  The extrapyramidal system. Basal ganglia. 

97.  How the labyrinth and vestibular nuclei work. 

98.  Cerebellar functions 

99.  The role of the brainstem in motor functions. 

100. Postural coordination and locomotion. 

101.  Somatosensory functions. Epicritic and protopathic sensations. 

102.  Somatosensory pathways. Physiology of the thalamus and somatosensory cortex. 

103.   Physiology of pain, function of analgesic pathways.                                     
104. Protection of the eyes. The intraocular pressure. 

105.  Optics of the eye, refractive errors. 

106.   Retinal mechanisms. 

107.   Visual field and visual pathways. 

108.  Cortical mechanisms of vision. 

109.  Color vision and depth perception and their disorders 

110.  Oculomotor processes. 

111.  Function of the outer and middle ear. Hearing tests. 

112.  Central nervous mechanisms of hearing. Auditory pathways. 

113.  Neurophysiology of smell sensation. 

114.  Neurophysiology of taste sensations. 

115.  Methods of examination of the central nervous system. 

116.  Electroencephalogram (EEG), evoked potentials. 

117.  Regulation of sleep-wake state. 

118.  Biological rhythms. Regulation of the circadian rhythm. 

119.  Activation systems of the brain: reticular activation system and neurohormonal control, monoamines. 

120.  Central regulation of autonomous functions. 

121.  The integrative role of the hypothalamus. Hunger and thirst. 

122.   Organization of behavioral responses in the central nervous system: motivation. 

123.    Anatomy and functions of the limbic system. Reward and Dopamine. 

124.    Central nervous system: Regulation of emotions. 

125.    Learning and its basic mechanisms. 

126.    Memory functions, and neural structures related to memory functions. 

127.     Cellular mechanisms of learning and memory, plasticity. 

128.     Function of the frontal and parieto-temporal cortex. 

129.    Lesion of the frontal and parieto-temporal cortex. 

130.    Physiological mechanisms of mind and language. Hemisphere dominance. 

Questions for the student lab report: 

1. Amount, specific gravity and pH of the urine. 

2. Glycosuria: its causes and its detection. 

3.  Examination of the urine sediment and evaluation of its results. 

4.  Protein and pus in the urine: their causes and their detection. 

5.  Measurement of the actual metabolic rate in human. 

6.  Determination of the nutritional status in humans. Measurement of body temperature. 

7.  Determination of blood glucose levels. Fasting blood glucose level. 

8.  Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). 

9.  Examination of estrus cycle in the rat. 

10.  Tests of pregnancy: Latex probe, Test strip. 

11.  Measurement threshold, chronaxie and rheobase on nerve preparation. 

12.  Recording compound action potential, examination of summation on nerve preparation. 

13.  Determination of nerve refractory period on nerve preparation. 

14.  Examination of electrotonus. 

15.  The law of polar excitation. 

16.  Pflüger’s laws. 

17.  Measuring of threshold, chronaxie and rheobase in humans. Motor point localization. 

18.  Measurement of nerve conduction velocity. 

19.  The muscle-nerve preparation. Direct and indirect electric stimulation of muscle-nerve preparation. 

20.  Examination of effect of curare on a muscle-nerve preparation. 

21.  Reflex tone (Brondgeest’s phenomenon), law of Bell and Magendie. 

22.  Spinal reflexes. Examination of reflexes in human. 

23.  Examination of the somatosensory system (tactile, temperature and pain sensation). 

24.  Measurement of reaction time and action time in human. 

25.  Method of stereotaxic surgery. 

26.  Stereotaxic operation and its fields of use in neuroscience and neurosurgery. 

27.  Examination of visual acuity. 

28.  Correction of refractive errors. 

29.  Examination of accommodation. 

30.  Examination of color vision. 

31.  Examination of depth perception. Examination of fusion frequency. 

32.  Visual contrasts, afterimages, color mixing. 

33.  Examination of astigmatism. 

34.  Ophthalmoscopic examination. 

35.  Examination of pupillary responses. 

36.  Examination of the visual field by means of perimetry. 

37.  Audiometry. 

38.  Examination of air and bone conduction (audible inspections). 

39.  Examination of the tympanic membrane. 

40.  Examination of the nasal cavity, laryngoscopy. 

41.  Examination of taste perception; examination of olfaction. 

42.  Examination of the vestibular system. 

43.  EEG (procedure of EEG examination, types and properties of EEG waves). 

44.  Properties of physiological EEG in awake and sleeping state. 

Study material for the final exam is the sum total of information covered in the obligatory textbook, on the homepage of the Institute, as well as knowledge given at the lectures and lab practices. 

Examiners

• Barabás Klaudia
• Buzás Péter
• Buzásné Telkes Ildikó
• Cziger-Nemes Vanda Ágnes
• Jandó Gábor
• Kecskés Miklós
• Kertes Erika
• Kóbor Péter
• Környei József László
• Kovács Gergely
• Kövesdi Erzsébet
• László Bettina Réka (Csetényi)
• László Kristóf
• Lengyel Ferenc
• Marosné Berta Beáta
• Mikó-Baráth Eszter
• Ollmann Tamás
• Pál József
• Péczely László Zoltán
• Péliné Kovács Anita
• Sziládiné Fusz Katalin
• Szőcs Szilárd
• Tóth Attila
• Tóth István Balázs
• Varga Csaba (Élettan)
• Zagorácz Olga
• Zelena Dóra Tímea

Instructor / tutor of practices and seminars

• Barabás Klaudia
• Henn-Mike Nóra
• Hormay Edina Emőke
• Jandó Gábor
• Kertes Erika
• Kóbor Péter
• Környei József László
• KURZUSHOZ RENDELT OKTATÓ
• László Kristóf
• Lengyel Ferenc
• Péczely László Zoltán
• Szabó István (Élettan)
• Szőcs Szilárd
• Varga Csaba (Élettan)
• Zagorácz Olga